Poor Liza Character in 20th Century Russian Literature Essay

It is no accident that the name that is attributed to the heroine in a number of Russian novels of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is named after some derivation of the name Elizabeth. Karamzin is the first to revere this name in his work Poor Liza and it is this work that sets off a chain reaction that causes the occurrence of subsequent characters in Russian literature. This character can particularly be found in works such as Pushkin’s Queen of Spades, Griboyedov’s Woe from Wit, and even briefly in Gogol’s Dead Souls. At the time that Karamzin published Poor Liza, Russia had recently seen the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1741-1761) who played a great role in shaping Russia’s identity and culture. Through a close reading of those Russian texts which include the Elizabeth character, an understanding of this name’s historic role in Russian literature can be achieved and its parallels to the monarch that this name evokes. Before tracing t he Liza name in the Russian texts, it is important to better understand the character traits and lives of the empresses after whom this name takes. The more significant of these being Queen Elizabeth of Russia as it was not long after her reign that Karamzin wrote Poor Liza. Elizabeth was born to Peter I of Russia and Catherine I of Russia; however due to the fact that her parents’ marriage was not publically acknowledged at the time of her birth, this would be a detail used to challenge her legitimacy to the throne by political opponents (Antonov, 104).In her outward appearance, Elizabeth delighted everyone, â€Å"with her extraordinary beauty and vivacity. She was commonly known as the leading beauty of the Russian Empire† (Antonov, 104). Politically, Elizabeth was seen as the heroine of the Russian cause as was attributed to her, â€Å"steady appreciation of Russian interests, and her determination to promote them at all hazards† (Rice, pg 121). Russia under Elizabeth’s rule reasserted her power over foreign repression as the country had been under direction of a number of German favorites and pres sure from the West. It was upon her coronation that a royal decree was issued stating, â€Å"the Russian people have been groaning under the enemies of the Christian faith, but she has delivered them from the degrading foreign oppression† (Antonov, 109). Elizabeth is also remembered for championing the arts and scholarship through the vast funding she poured into projects such as the Moscow State University, the Winter Palace, and the Imperial Academy of Arts (Antonov, 106). The image of Elizabeth is also painted by her deep devotion to religion in that she disengaged many of the legislations that her father had done to limit the power of the church (Rice 149). In many ways, Elizabeth I becomes the perfect root from which the image of the heroic Russian woman springs from as is later manifested in Russian Literature following her reign. The first time that Russian is introduced to the Liza character is in Karamzin’s Poor Liza which was published in 1792, following Elizabeth I’s rule . The main heroine, Liza’s, characteristics can be attributed to those of Elizabeth herself. The first of these similarities can be found in both of the female’s fathers. Liza’s father is described as, â€Å"a rather well-to-do settler, for he loved work, tilled the land well† (Karamzin, 80). The hardworking nature of the father can also be seen in the traits of Elizabeth I’s father, Peter the Great who’s restless work made Russia into an empire. However the greater likeness lies in the negative effects caused by each of the women’s father’s deaths. In Poor Liza, soon after Liza’s father’s death, â€Å"his wife and daughter grew poor†¦and they were forced to rent out their land for a pittance sum† (Karamzin, 80). Similarly, after the death of Peter I, â€Å"no royal court or noble house in Europe could allow a son to pay court to Elizabeth, as it would be seen as an unfriendly act to the Empress Annaâ₠¬  (Coughlan, 59). The lowering of stature for both Liza and Elizabeth made it difficult for both to find a fitting husband. In Liza’s case, lest she ends up marrying someone she does not love. When Erast and Liza are discussing the marriage arrangements that are being made for her to be married to a peasant boy and Erast asks if she would marry him instead, she says to him, â€Å"but you can never be my husband!†¦ I am a peasant girl† (Karamzin, 87). Since Elizabeth I was shunned from the royal courts after her father’s death and at the same time she could not marry below her so as not to lose the royal title, the empress died unmarried, as did Liza. However, this is not the only shared experience of the Russian heroines. Another parallel between the empress and Karamzin’s peasant girl can be found in their educational background. For a queen, Elizabeth I was considered lacking of the solid education needed for her role. This could mostly be blamed on Peter I’s focus on state affairs and her mother’s illiterateness and laissez-affair approach to her daughter’s studies (Antonov, 104). A comparable trait can be drawn in Liza, specifically when she is saying good-bye to Erast and she says, â€Å"Oh! Why do I not know how to read or write!† (Karamzin, 89). And so, both women were undereducated for the role they had come to fill, a ruler and a worried-sick lover. Taking a closer look at Elizabeth’s and Liza’s personalities it becomes evident that they share commonalities. For instance, when Karamzin first introduces his Liza character, he says that, â€Å"to soothe her mother she tried to hide the grief in her heart and appear at ease and gay† (Karamzin 81). This gayness can be also found in Elizabeth I as she was well known for her gaiety and playfulness as was evidences by the cross-dressing balls that she held at her court (Rice 136). Another example of their similar characters can be found in the virginal beauty and pious image created by both. Karamzin describes Liza as being a â€Å"rare beauty† (Karamzin, 80) and Elizabeth in her youth was as already mentioned the premier beauty of Russia in her day. It is also important to note the pureness in the aura created by Liza as she is unspoiled by the trivialities of high-society. The color white can be found in a number of images in connection with Liza, the first being the lilies of the valley which Liza sells at the market in Moscow (Karamzin, 81). These flowers are typically small and white in nature and by Christian are attributed to the tears of the Virgin Mary during the crucifixion of Christ, thus by having Liza the vendor of such flowers, she is placed into a wholesome and holy light (Krymow, 18). Another place in which the color white and purity is shown in connection to Liza is when Erast visits her home and says, â€Å"I am very tired. Would you have any fresh milk?† (Karamzin 82). Liza, â€Å"ran to the cellar, brought back a clean earthenware pot, washed it and dried it with a white towel, poured and handed the glass through the window† (Karamzin 82). Even when Liza falls in love she is described as having a , â€Å"pure, and open heart† (Karamzin, 85) and there are more images of purity and whiteness as is seen when the two lovers meet at night and, â€Å"they embrace – but chaste, shy Cynthia did not hide from them behind a cloud; their embraces were pure and sinless.† (Karamzin, 86). Karamzin also describes Liza through Erast’s eyes as a shepherdess, again evoking an image of purity (Karamzin, 86). Even when Liza gives up her virginity to Erast, Karamzin still evokes images of purity when he says, â€Å"like a lamb she submitted to his will in everything† (Karamzin, 89). These holy referents in Karamzin’s Poor Liza, create a sacred image out of the Liza character which is similar to the character traits of Elizabeth I. Part of the reason that the empress Elizabeth built so many churches was that at one point she was considering becoming a nun. For this reason The Convent was built and erected by her order (Bain, 138). She is also attributed to building the most number of churches as compared to any other Russian monarch, the most famous being the Smolny Catherdral (Bain, 138).In her religious devotion, and her unmarried life lie some of the stronger parallels to Karamzin’s Liza character from which the spring the lineage of the Liza characters. Following Poor Liza, other writers also began evoking the image of Elizabeth I in their writing. The next one being Griboyedov’s in his Lizzie character in Woe from Wit. Again the Liza character, in this case being Lizzie, is painted as a picture of pure virginal beauty. Lizzie’s outer appearance is described by Molchalin: There’s one thing I’m thinking of: These cheeks, these veins and all Have not yet seen the flush of love. (Griboyedov, IV.xii.4-6) In the last line, Mochalin especially points out the paleness of her skin which shows her virginity. Another similarity between Elizabeth I Liza, and Lizzie, is that they all reject or lovers who rank higher or equal to them. Lizzie for example pushes away Molchalin when he tries to embrace her (Griboyedov, IV.xii.51-52) and instead loves someone of lower or equal rank: So strange these people seem to be! She craves for him, he craves for me, And I’m†¦ the only one who’s scared of love, Barman Petrusha, my sweetest dove. (Griboyedov, I.xiv.4-6) Lizzie also rejects Famusov when he corners her in the hall and embraces. She is stern with him and shows little interest, despite his rank: It’s you who’s frivolous, let go, will you? Compose yourself, old man. This is corresponds with the relationship dynamics of Elizabeth I in that she was once betrothed to Prince Karl Augustus but he died before they could be married(Coughlan, 23). Instead of seeking a husband of equal stature, which proved difficult because she was not welcome in noble circles she pursued lovers in the military and service, eventually settling on a Ukrainian peasant in a church choir by the name Alexis Razumovsky (Coughlan, 59). Yet there are more similarities that can be traced between Elizabeth and Lizzie’s characters. Elizabeth I’s rule was marked by the extravagant balls and events who would throw. On average, her weekly balls would host approximately 800 guests and she would also often throw smaller parties for her court members (Rice, 135). Lizzie, like Elizabeth, also enjoys a celebrations and parties. For this reason when she is speak with Sofia she reminds her, â€Å"the holiday is coming! Time for fun!† (Griboyedov, I.v.1). Lizzie is referring to the get together that will happen in the play as it will give her a chance to see her beloved Petrushka. Following Lizzie’s character, the Liza image carried over next to Pushkin’s work, Queen of Spades. The Lizaveta character in Queen of Spades is reminiscent of the young Elizabeth I who was unpopular at the royal court. Lizaveta is first described to the reader as the â€Å"martyr† of the house as she was always being scolded and blamed for everything (Pushkin, 348). This again evokes the saintly images created by Karamzin and Griboyedov. Particularly similar to the young queen is Lisaveta in the following passage: â€Å"She had a fixed salary, but it was never paid in full; at the same time she was expected to dress like everyone else, that is, like the few. In society she played the most pitiable role. Everybody knew her, but nobody took any notice of her; at the balls she danced only when an extra partner was needed for a vis-à  -vis.† (Pushkin, 349) This image is similar to that of Elizabeth in that she had royal blood and for this reason was expected to dress and act a certain way; however she was not accepted by the society she was a part of. In addition to the way in which the young Elizabeth fit into society, Lisaveta is also similar to Elizabeth in her later age. When Elizabeth I was growing old she began having complications with her health that caused dizzy spells. She grew increasingly depressed and disallowed the word ‘death’ to be spoken in her presence (Antonov, 109). This antic can also be seen in the actions of Lizaveta in her interactions with Tomskii: â€Å"By the way, methinks she must be getting on, Princess Daria Petrovna? â€Å" What do you mean getting on?† Tomskii answered absentmindedly. â€Å"She’s been dead for these seven years.† The young lady raised her head and signaled to him. He remembered the old Countess was never informed of the death of any of her contemporaries, and he bit his lip.† (Pushkin, 345). In this instance the image of Elizabeth I gets somewhat muddled since it is unclear whether the countess disallows the subject of death to be brought up in front of her or if it is Lisaveta who does not like the idea. The old Countess herself mirrors Elizabeth I in that she cares a great deal about her outer appearance as the countess dressed in a fashion, â€Å"strictly following the fashions of the 1770s, spending just as much time on and paying just as much attention to, her toilette as she had sixty years before† (Pushking, 345). In similar fashion, Elizabeth I in her older age, had a monstrous collection of clothing, having owned 15,000 dresses and would change outfits two to six times a day (sAntonov, 107). Like the young Elizabeth and Lisaveta, the countess did not quite fit into the society she was a part of, â€Å"she participated in all the trivial events of high society life, dragging herself to balls, where she would sit in a corner, †¦the guests, as they arrived, would go up to her bowing low†¦but afterwards would pay no attention to her† (Pushikin, 348). If the relationship between Lisaveta and the Countess is further explored their dynamic can be seen as the countess being an old Elizabeth I and Lisaveta being the young Elizabeth I. Pushkin plays tricks on the reader with the images of Lisaveta and the countess. Perhaps the most striking example of this is that when Hermann is leaving the old Countess’s house and he, â€Å"pressed her cold, unresponsive hand, kissed her bowed head, and went out† (Pushkin, 362). It is not transparent here whether Hermann had just kissed the Lisaveta or the dead countess, which could be done by Pushkin on purpose. Perhaps the reason for the two Elizabeth-like characters is so that the old one can have the young one avoid marrying a person of above or of her own class and instead marry down. This is because the marriage of the countess is what brings the countess the cursed secret she has to keep since the old count refused to pay her debts and she had to seek outside help(Pushkin, 342). For this reason, when the apparition of the old countess comes to Hermann, she tells him, â€Å"I will forgive you my death under the condition that you marry my ward, Lizaveta Ivanovna†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Pushkin, 365) and so the Elizabeth I image is put forth by Lizaveta. The final image of the Liza character appears in Gogol’s Dead Souls, in the form of Manilov’s wife Lizenka. Here the Elizabeth character is portrayed in a sickeningly sweet form. The relationship between Manilov and his wife are described as constantly feeding one another little tid-bits and candies. In the Lizenka character, Gogol is ultimately poking fun at the sentimentalist nature of the Liza character which can be contrived from Elizabeth I’s own character. Gogol does not take Karmzin’s sentimentalist writing as true literature and for this reason names Karamzin in the following instance: â€Å"Nor were his colleauges a wit inferior to him in enlightenment. For instance, one of them made regular practice of reading Karamzin, another of conning the Moscow Gazette, and the third of never looking at a book at all.† (Gogol, 142) Here Gogol takes on a sarcastic tone in describing the â€Å"great works† that the collegues indulge in. For this reason, Gogol choice of the diminutive form of Elizabeth, Lizenka is further support that her character her sweetie pie character is a parody to Karamzin’s Liza. This play on the the Liza character can be seen as a commentary on, Elizabeth I’s character as she was described as â€Å"kind and warm-hearted for the emotions sake alone† (Rice, 135). Gogol sees this type of personality as unintelligent and makes fun of Lizenka’s schooling which is somewhat similar to Elizabeth I’s in that Lizenka only learned French, the piano, and housewifery (Gogol, 22). However, regardless of her schooling, Lizenka through her relationship with Manilov is in charge of the souls which is perhaps a view he takes on Elizabeth I’s rule of the Russian people. By tracing the character traits and life events of Elizabeth I of Russia in Russian Literature following her rule, the emergence of the heroine Liza becomes evident. Beginning with Karamzin who evokes many of the holy and pure images that surround Elizabeth I’s and as well as Gribodev who shows the virginal beauty of the empress in his writing. Their literature is then followed by Pushkin, who focuses more on the outcast member of society that Elizabeth I was growing up under her Cousin Anne’s rule. And so the Liza character, heroine of Russian literature is created in celebration to Elizabeth I only to be ridiculed by Gogol in his brief apostrophes to Karamzin’s original work. So Liza’s character becomes an enigma in Russian literature history in that it is unclear whether her name is ultimately venerated or ridiculed in the minds of the readers of these great works. Works Cited Antonov, B. I., and Kenneth MacInnes. Russian Tsars: [the Rurikids, the Romanovs. St. Petersburg: Ivan Fedorov, 2005. Print. Coughlan, Robert. Elizabeth and Catherine: Empresses of All the Russias. London: Macdonald and Jane’s, 1975. Print. GogolÊ ¹, NikolaÄ ­ VasilÊ ¹evich, Constance Garnett, and Clifford Odets. Dead Souls. New York: Modern Library, 1936. Print. Griboyedov, Aleksandr Sergeyevich. Aleksandr Griboedov’s Woe from Wit: A Commentary and Translation. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2005. Print. Karamzin, NikolaÄ ­ MikhaÄ ­lovich, and Henry M. Nebel. Selected Prose of N.M. Karamzin. Evanston: Northwestern UP, 1969. Print. Krymow, Vincenzina. Mary’s Flowers: Gardens, Legends & Meditations. Cincinnati, OH: St. Anthony Messenger, 1999. Print. Pushkin, Aleksandr Sergeevich, and Paul Debreczeny. The Captain’s Daughter and Other Stories. London: David Campbell, 1992. Print. Rice, Tamara Talbot. Elizabeth, Empress of Russia. New York: Praeger, 1970. Print.

Government Growth in an Age of Improvement Essay

Democratic accountability is supposed to be alive and well in any political system rather than a government ran on â€Å"auto-pilot† at the expense of neglected and so expected taxpayers and rightful citizens. Introduction It should sound ironical that the president should continue to choose cabinet and sub cabinet officers and both the president and the congress continue to remain accountable to the American people through elections and exercise the power of the purse unlike in other democratic countries a great lack of interest in political administration is evident in the United Nations, resulting to deeper strains in American Society at large. The US has never created a high level, government-wide-civil service or a highly skilled and experienced top executive political manpower. The control of government policies is vested in an informal enduring series of â€Å"iron triangles† who are a link between particular program proposed to the relevant executive bureau, congressional committees and interest groups clientele the iron triangles are disastrously incomplete since they hardly understand changes in politics and administration but rather look for the powerful actors with whom to do business (P. 88). The job of presidential appointees in controlling their own actions and managing the bureaucracy are ultimately complicated. The problem arises where politicians, officials and their fellow travelers fail to meet what the public can understand and accept; thus registering large strains of American politics and society. Organized politics are dissolved and organizational life throughout the nation is politicized. Government Growth in an Age of Improvement The late 1950s and entire 1960s witnessed a wave of federal initiatives in health, civil rights, education, housing, manpower, income maintenance, transportation and urban affairs all associated with low government expenditure. Newer types of welfare concerns such as consumer protection, the environment, cancer prevention, energy, etc. have characterized an ambitious, reform minded period and a big government. However, there has been astonishingly little increase in the overall size of the federal executive establishment. Federal employment never grew either in comparison with spending and regulations (P. 89). Higher costs of existing policies are just one explanation of expanding government and stable bureaucracy and has been important in income maintenance programs. Another explanation is lack of administering programs directly to general population but rather act through intermediary organizations such as state governments, city halls, third party payers, consultants, contractors etc. making the contract between the ordinary citizen and a federal bureaucrat quite rare. This promotes the idea of government by remote control. This in essence is advantageous to the federal government builds support for policies, translating otherwise indivisible collective goods into terms suitable for distributive politics (P. 91). Sidestepping the tremendously difficult task of creating a broad national consensus for the governments administered activities is another advantage. This method of policies has led to mushrooming of federal regulations much in common with federal spending – the government can use regulations and tell the public and private bureaucracies what to do. The federal policy makers are left to distribute funds and bear blames when things go wrong. The style of retailing promises of improved policies and wholesaling the administrative headaches connected with delivery has left the people to expect the government to solve problems but not to get in anyone’s way in the process (P. 93). These results to policy pile up. Washington has in the end been put to the worst of both world-blamed for poor delivery by its public customers and besieged with bills from its middlemen. The possibility of both politicizing organizational life and depoliticizing democratic leadership is an area of concern. Since 1950s greatest policy growth was advocated – programs seeking social betterment in terms of civil rights, income, housing, environment, consumer protection etc. otherwise known as welfare policies. The idea of compensation is a theme in the clamor of group politics meaning that the federal government should put things right fits well for the groups that are disadvantaged and special treatment is required for truly equal opportunity to prevail and for those representing the disadvantaged. The government action is required to redress the impact of the selfish private interests. The prevalent feeling in the US that â€Å"there oughtta be policy† and the connotation of getting in on society’s compensations is decidedly positive. New initiatives in federal funding and regulation have infused old and new organizations with public policy dimensions, especially when such groups are used as administrative middlemen (P. 96-97). Expanding welfare policies on indirect administration have encouraged the development of specialized subcultures composed of highly knowledgeable policy makers some of whom have advanced professional degrees and commonly shared detailed understanding of specialized issues (P. 100-101). Employees in the field and in Washington who perform the routine chores associated with direct administration have become less prominent whereas those with necessary technical and supervisory skills have become more important. This in essence, results to expansion of the upper and middle levels of officialdom rather than increase the overall size of the bureaucracy. More technical skills and higher supervisory levels have become a requirement. Stable sets of clear goals in all modern organizations, even non profit oriented are the causes of increasing complexities and specializations affecting leaders. The pressure for more expert staff assistance have become immense for decision makers in governments where policy goals have been neither stable nor clear in the last twenty years and this applies to legislators and public executives (P. 101). Weakness in executive leadership below the level of the president have never really been due to interest groups, party politics or congress, rather the problem lies on the lack of any democratically based power political executives yet their popular mandate to act in the bureaucracy secondhand, from either an elected chief executive in congress political democrats further weaken the scenario. As much as political administrators become close to specialized policy networks the gap between them and the ordinary citizen widens a typical presidential appointee hardly gets time to see or listen to an ordinary member of the public. Only a minority of citizens gets a chance to be moralized in the various networks while those who are not policy activists depend on the ability of the government institutions to work on their behalf (P. 118). Conclusion More communication may need to be involved incase the gap between the policy networks and the bulk of the population is created by information. Policy forensics among the networks yield more experts making more sophisticated claims and counter claims that non-specialists becomes inclined to concede everything and believe nothing that he hears. Many factors and events are linked to these changing public attitudes. The prominence of issue networks is bound to aggravate problems of legitimacy and public disenchantment. The influential systems for knowledgeable policy making tend to make democratic politics difficult (P. 118-119). References Hugo Heclo, 2007 â€Å"Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment. †

The things they carried Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The things they carried - Assignment Example The province was marked with guerilla wars leading to death of several soldiers (OBrien 123). The view about death is vital because it is the focus of the story. The understanding of death is influenced and affected by the situation surrounding the person. As soldiers, walking across the murky sewage plain, the loss of Kiowa brings a new change. The death of Kiowa has been taken and viewed differently according to Obrien. Jimmy cross is the group leader tasked with leading the group. However, after the death of Kiowa, Cross thinks that he led the team wrongly. Even though, the order is from above, he argues that the failure to address the safety of the group and issues of movement affected the reasoning and the initial belief of the job. Cross argues that he did not choose to lead the group. The wrong choice of camping on the dangerous riverside is regretted by the leader (OBrien 78). The valley represents an area of opinion presentation and analysis. Bowker speaks of courage as he reviews the death of Kiowa. The situation is revisited by the characters, which is the main focus of the story. The experience of the Cross was improved with the death of Kiowa. The title of the story is based on the obsession of the things he soldiers carried. Cross focused on the wife photo instead of the current situation which includes the death of Kiowa. The task at hand in such case was forgotten until the dawn of reality through death. Inexperience is the major contributor of fear and poor decision making. Cross handles the guilt is an absurd and funny way by accepting the blame in the case of poor judgment. However, the questioning of the role of superiors in offering guidance is evident. The experience and events in the swamp after the location of the body of Kiowa depicts change in perception. The letter to Kiowa’s father is drafted in the mind of Cross because of the fear and guilt (OBrien 89). Cross takes responsibility on the

Key issues involved in the primary school teaching and learning of Essay

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Strategic Business Planning portfolio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

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Compare and Contrast Research Methods - Essay Example Through observation, the researcher is able to identify particular aspects of the research (Poynter, 2010). Also, through observation, researchers learn more information about research aspects, thus being able to determine attitudes and behaviors. Both observation and in-depth interview methods are important because they will increase the objectivity of the study (Poynter, 2010). Informal and in-depth methods are largely qualitative. Researchers use in-depth interviews in collecting data, because it is a highly interactive, multivariate and objective method of conducting study, which makes it different from observation method (Wilson, 2010). Using interview, the interviewer seeks more explanation from the interviewees as opposed to observation, where the researcher simply looks at the objects of study (Wilson, 2010). Under this methodology of in-depth interview, the participants will be drawn from four departments within the research population (Wilson, 2010). Since there will be many prospective participants from each department, out of the available participants, the researcher will select a given sample for the study. This is similar to observation because in the latter, the researcher can chose from the available research items to carry out the study (Wilson, 2010). In addition, the selection of participants in informal and in-depth interview is done usi ng random sampling, which is representative and non-discriminative, a situation which makes the methods resemble observation. Under informal and in-depth interviews, the different categories under which the participants will be divided would be based on the management levels, where as in observation, the researcher carries the study alone (Wilson, 2010). Interviews will also increase the participation between the researcher and respondents. Indeed, using interview will increase the interaction and the researcher would get more relevant information about the topic, a situation that

Summary Issue Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Summary Issue Analysis - Research Paper Example The facilitator will reduce one full letter on the grade marking for any completed template, because of a student has not entered her or his responses in the appropriate box. Enter responses using single space and the font type and size should be the pre-determined one for the template (Times New Roman, 12-point). The facilitator will reduce one full letter on the grade for any completed template, if a student has used other spacing conventions, font type or font size. Wherever grammatically appropriate and helpful, include paragraph breaks and bulleted lists to organize responses. Responses must not exceed the maximum word count limit for each section [as set forth in brackets next to each heading]. Determine the number of words included in the response to each section and input the word count to each response in the spaces provided within the template. (To determine word counts, in MS Word, highlight the response, select the â€Å"Tools† drop-down menu and select Word Count. ) Again, the facilitator may reduce one full letter on the grade marking for any completed template (a) If the response in any section exceeds the related maximum word count limit, or (b) If the student fails to provide his/her own word count. Completely and successfully check grammatical error as well as spelling mistakes in the responses (using the related MS Word capability) prior to submitting the completed template to the facilitator. For this purpose, make certain that ALL â€Å"grammar– and style– check† options and settings are active. In MS Word, select Tools, Options, Spelling & Grammar. Under Writing style, select Grammar & Style. Then select Settings †¦ and check all Grammar and Style boxes except Use of first person. Also, under Require select always Comma required before last item option; for Punctuation required with quotes select inside; and for Spaces required between sentences select 2. The facilitator will reduce one full letter on the gr ade on any completed template, if it (a) is not successfully spell-checked and grammar-checked using the required settings or (b) uses any instance of â€Å"passive voice.† Submit the completed template to the facilitator via the course drop box. The facilitator will grade and comment on the electronic files submitted and subsequently return the files to students via the course drop box. Use the following file naming convention, a student should submit the completed template to the facilitator. Modify the course term indicator as appropriate: A603_M8W2-12_Analysis_StudentLastName_StudentFirstInitial.doc Example: A603_M8W2-12_Analysis_Smith_J.doc The facilitator will not accept assignments after the due date, without exception. Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine and discuss the ethical issues, economic consequences, and political context of accounting standards and financial reporting for stock-based compensation (most commonly in the form of employee stock optio ns). This paper begins by identifying the stakeholders and the nature of their stake in the decision of a company, about whether it has to (a) adopt the optional fair value method of

Presidential Powers Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Presidential Powers - Assignment Example President of America is the head of the state as well as the head of the government whereas in India, president is the head of the state whereas the prime minister is the head of the government. Being the head of the state and head of the government, American president enjoys a variety of powers in internal as well as external matters. Article II of the American Constitution, grants numerous powers to President of America. The power of president can be divided into two broad categories; one with respect to Domestic affairs and the other with respect to Foreign policy. This paper analyses the power of American president in through various perspectives. Type of powers of President of America â€Å"Article II of the Constitution vests the powers of the executive branch in the President of the United States and details the powers of that office†(Presidential powers, 2007). In other words, executive power is vested up on the president of America. All the governmental agencies are w orking under the president and these agencies taking instructions from the president. For example, president is the commander in chief of the armed forces in America and these forces function based on the instructions of the president.

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Assignment Example This is because referrals, detentions, and disciplinary measures are not effective on the side of such students. ESOL students tend to experience difficulties in learning, which is not the case with the native speakers of the language. From my experience, these students fail regularly in their classes. I, therefore, concluded that ESOL students require more than normal lectures can offer so as to help them in their understanding (Stoynoff & Chapelle, 2005). The idea that an individual could require special education is mostly derived from the medical history of the student. However, it is worth noting that students with special needs can perform as their normal peers with little assistance (Special Education and Student Services, 2012). Special education programs are divided into several categories such as the visual students and the auditory students. As the students’ ability differ, the approach to different subjects with regard to special students also varies. The first les son to consider is measurement. Measurement is about the idea of a number that is used to show the size or the amount of something (Measurement Index, 2013). The major objectives of determining measurement include ensuring that a precise measurement is recorded as it could be used in other calculations. The procedures of determining measurements are diverse and unique to the unit whose measurements are being determined. There are many things that can be measured, but the common ones are length, area, time, volume and mass. Specific instruments are used to measure these elements. For instance, with respect to length, an instrument such as a ruler can be used to determine short lengths. To engage the students, in this subject, I would begin by asking suggestive questions such as what a ruler is and what it is used for. The next step could be explaining the meaning of words such as mass and volume to the students. While explaining volume, to make it easy for the students to understand, it would be appropriate to use the model approach. This is where a small version of a large object is used to show how measurements are taken, and how to use them in calculating the subsequent volume. This would also serve as a perfect way to introduce the lesson to the students. Besides the theory part, for better understanding bearing in mind that these are special students, practice is essential to their understanding. Therefore, the teacher should be involved in the initial stage of the practice as the guided practice to show individual students how to use various instruments in acquiring accurate measurements. As a teacher, after I am satisfied that the students have understood the concept, I leave them to discuss with their peers on the subjects then answer any possible questions the following day. It is of extreme importance to realize that there exist different types of special students. With regard to the visual students, the teacher should concentrate much on visualizing the subject. This incorporates using labeled diagrams in the classroom and multimedia such as power point animations and video clips showing the procedures of obtaining the measurements. With respect to auditory students, it would be important to use the practical part of the lesson when showing the student how to acquire the measurement. Since

Global Warming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Global Warming - Essay Example The threat here is that the polar ice caps would soon be melting because of global warming, which would increase the level of oceans to side. People living on coastal lines would have to evacuate their homes and move to other places, causing overcrowding and security concerns (Michaels & Balling, 2009). The rise in ocean levels can cause floods, destroying crops and creating drought in countries. Citizens of the developed countries are aware of this growing problem because there have been many documentaries about global warming and researches done in the developed world, where environmentalists and scientists have explained the consequences of global warming to the people. The people living in developing countries are responsible for making sure that the human activities which trigger global warming, are prevented from happening and people act more responsibly (Black & Weisel, 2010). There are also more responsible because they have more resources to make people aware, as compared to the underdeveloped countries. The United States and other countries are responsible in a way, that they should create awareness in underdeveloped countries, and create programs to make people responsible for their actions and the way they treat the environment. However, not all responsibility lies in the hands of the developed countries, underdeveloped nations feel the climate change and the impact of globalization too. The government should be responsible for preventing activities which harm the environment.

The Meaning of life Essay Example for Free

The Meaning of life Essay What is the meaning of life? is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context What is the purpose of life? Here are some of the many potential answers to this perplexing question. The responses are shown to overlap in many ways but may be grouped into the following categories: Survival and temporal success to live every day like it is your last and to do your best at everything that comes before you to be always satisfied to live, go to school, work, and die to participate in natural human evolution, or to contribute to the gene pool of the human race to advance technological evolution, or to actively develop the future of intelligent life to compete or co-operate with others to destroy others who harm you, or to practice nonviolence and nonresistance to gain and exercise power to leave a legacy, such as a work of art or a book to eat to prepare for death to spend life in the pursuit of happiness, maybe not to obtain it, but to pursue it relentlessly. to produce offspring through sexual reproduction (alike to participating in evolution) to protect and preserve ones kin, clan, or tribe (akin to participating in evolution) to seek freedom, either physically, mentally or financially to observe the ultimate fate of humanity to the furthest possible extent to seek happiness and flourish, experience pleasure or celebrate to survive, including the pursuit of immortality through scientific means to attempt to have many sexual conquests (as in Arthur Schopenhauers will to procreate) to find and take over all free space in this game called life to seek and find beauty to kill or be killed

Usage Involved The Area Of Simple Present English Language Essay

Usage Involved The Area Of Simple Present English Language Essay This report was compiled to examine Simple Present Tense (SPT) use with beginner ESL students, aged 7-10 years old, attending Primary school. Ideally class sizes consist of 5-10 students, all L2 learners. The purpose and structure of SPT is highlighted. SPT differences with other languages and SPT difficulties faced by ESL students are outlined. SPT activities from introductory lessons through to higher proficiency have been discussed. Definition of Simple Present tense: The tense of a verb that expresses action or state in the present time and is used of what occurs or is true at the time of speaking and of what is habitual or characteristic or is always or necessarily true, that is sometimes used to refer to action in the past, and that is sometimes used for future events (Merriam-Webster, 2003, pg.982). These are not so much the meanings of the simple tenses themselves as the meanings which they gain in particular contexts. It is only the tense plus the context which can be said to express a certain temporal or aspectual meaning such as repetition, habit, or generality. The tenses themselves do not carry such specific meanings. If they did, then context would not be necessary for interpreting the time reference of a verb (Pennington, 1988, pg.). Simple Present tense is used to discuss: Repeated actions and express the idea that an action is usual. The action can be a hobby, a daily occurrence, a scheduled event or something that happens regularly e.g. I play soccer. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do e.g. She never goes on holidays. Habitual is a common term used to describe the meaning of this term, which has come under scrutiny. What constitutes habitual action is determined completely by experience, and not at all by language especially not by the tense of the verb (Pennington, 1988, pg.53). Facts or generalisations It indicates that the speaker believes that a fact was true before (past), is true now (present), will be true in the future e.g. Spiders have eight legs and is timeless. It is also used to make generalizations about people or hings e.g. Vanessa is boring (Pennington, 1988, pg.53). Past and Future events Simple present is used to talk about the past or future and is described in a very immediate way, bringing the past or future into the present, including them as part of the present reality of the speaker and the hearer. As pointed out by Brown and Levinson (1978), shifting to the present tense is a way to show deference and positive regard towards the hearer, making a good story which pulls [the hearer] right into the middle of the events being discussed, metaphorically at any rate, thereby increasing their intrinsic interest; (p. 111). (Pennington, 1988, pg.52) http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/simplepresent.html Structure of Present Simple sentences I base He You form She verb + S We of It They verb (+) Subject + verb + (+) Subject + verbS + (-) Subject + DONT + verb + (-) Subject + DOESNT = verb + (?) DO + subject + verb + (?) DOES + subject + verb + (WH)WH Q + DO + subject + verb +.. (WH) WH Q + DOES + Subject + verb + WHO + verbS WHO + verbS (Singalovski, 2008) Spelling When you add S to the verb you have to pay attention to spelling. 1. think + s 2. catch + es When the verb ends with s, sh, ch, x, z or o we add es. 3. stay + s fry Æ’Â   fries (Singalovski, 2008) Description of differences between English and Korean Korean language is spoken by 60 million people in North and South Korea. With an additional 5 million emigrants speaking the language worldwide in China, Japan, North America, and the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Renaud, 2002, pg.1). The phonetic system, the syntactic structure, and semantics between English and Korean differ so greatly that the transition from one language to the other requires enormous efforts from the learner. More specifically, in relation to simple present tense, Korean learners typically struggle with the following disparities: In English, the word order is SVO (subject-verb-object), while the basic pattern of a Korean sentence is SOV (subject-object-verb). Although Korean has case-marking morphemes to designate the cases of the nouns and shows a more flexible word order, the predicate always comes at the end of a sentence (Cho, 2004, pg.33). In Korean the subject of the sentence is left out if it can be implied by the context, whilst in English, sentences need explicit subjects (Worldlingo, 2011). In Korean language new words are created by combining simple words, without changing their form (agglutinative). Words are created by adding suffixes to the basic part of the word (stem). Suffixes attached to a verb stem indicate things such as verb tense (past, present, or future), verb aspect (complete, repeated, or continuing), and honorification (marking of the relative status of the person addressed to or referred to from the speaker or addressers point of view-an elder, a stranger, a close friend) (Renaud, 2002, pg.4). In English the following third person pronouns are commonly used he, she, it, her, him (singular) and they, them (plural) . In Korean there are two third person pronouns used, male and female; the female form sounds awkward, and is mostly used when translating texts. Korean originally had only one third person pronoun for both genders, meaning it. However it has increasingly been interpreted as a male pronoun used for both genders. Although in recent years the pronoun the female counterpart is slowly gaining ground due to the influence of translations from European languages, it is almost restricted to specific styles of written language, because Korean generally uses subject less or modifier + noun constructions (Worldlingo, 2011). Generally forms used to denote third person in Korean are not separate lexical items, but rather are formed by combining the demonstrative pronouns i = this, ku =that and ce =that (over there), with bound nouns. The deictic use depends on the distance between the referent and the speaker. They indicate respectively, close proximity, middle proximity and distant proximity (Iksop, Ramsey, 200, pg.90,91). In Korean verbs in the present tense do not take -s in the third person singular. Korean learners of English commonly fail to ensure there is subject-verb agreement, by missing inflected endings in writing and speaking (Cho, 2004, pg.33). Many Koreans repeat the question-answer format of Korean negative questions when communicating in English. To the question, Didnt you like it? English speakers answer either, Yes, I did or, No, I didnt, whilst Koreans generally respond either Yes, I didnt like it, or No, I liked it. Native English speakers are generally perplexed by Koreans amalgamation of positive and negative elements of discourse. Korean students also experience fossilization problems when attempting to express conditionals, indirect questions, rhetorical questions and hypothetical statements, as a result of first language interference (Cho, 2004, pg.33). Clearly, the difficulties Korean learners have in learning English are not limited to just Koreans. Students of any nationality may experience difficulties due to language difference, culture gaps, and the discrepancy between their language ability and their overall maturity(Cho, 2004, pg.36). . . Difficulties simple present tense poses to learners Parrott (pg.195, 2010) and Wee (pg.35, 36, 2009) outline the subsequent issues, as characteristic and typical difficulties learners face with simple present tense. Omitting third person s / Omitting auxiliary verbs Errors of omission consist of the omission of compulsory elements in tense or number markers such as the omission of the grammatical morphemes. These include the omission of -s/-es/-ies for the verbs after the third person singular in the simple present tense. The copula be verb is often omitted in the simple present and simple past well as the progressive tenses (WEE, 2009, pg.351). Addition of Unnecessary Elements Unnecessary elements that are present result in errors of addition, for example, the use of redundant tense markers. Students may put -s,-es,-ies markers after the verbs that follow the plural nouns/pronouns in the simple present tense or redundantly put the -ed marker in cases where it is not necessary, for example, cuted, puted (WEE, 2009, pg. 352). Double Marking Double marking occurs when two items are marked for the same feature such as tense, for example, My neighbour doesnt likes Mary. or The thief didnt ran away when I shouted. Students may redundantly add -s, -ed or -ing forms to the verb after a modal which should be followed by the base form of a verb (WEE, 2009, pg. 352). Incorrect tense choice Errors of misformation occur when students choose the wrong forms of the words in place of the right ones. These commonly happen in cases of subject-verb agreement, for example, The men was here last night. The wrong tense may be used, for example, the use of the past tense forms to express present or future time or the use of the present tense forms to refer to past actions (WEE, 2009, pg. 352). Questions and Indirect Speech Students are often confused when they use reported questions or indirect speech resulting in the occurrence of errors of ordering. This means that the correct elements are wrongly sequenced, for example, They asked me where was the girl. Students face a lot of difficulties in using the phrasal verbs and may produce sentences like I pick up her. or I phone up him. (WEE, 2009, pg. 352) Questions and negative forms Errors arise from several possible general sources, namely interlingual errors of interference from the native language, intralingual errors within the target language, the sociolinguistic context of communication, psycholinguistic and cognitive strategies, along with countless affective variables (Brown,1980: 66). Level students are taught simple present tense and through which contexts and topics. Effectively teaching simple present tense verbs to ESL students helps to build a strong foundation for their use of the English language. The simple present tense is usually the first verb tense ESL students are taught (Teaching ESL to Adults). Students learn best when they feel safe yet challenged, when responses are accepted yet extended, and when expectations are realistic yet high. Teachers can assist by teaching explicitly within context and providing varying levels of support as students become increasingly independent and how it changes in different situations (BOS NSW, 2000, pg.8). ESL learners need an explicit, methodical and planned language program that is integrated into their general class work in all key learning areas, and that takes into account their needs and development (BOS, NSW, pg.13). English language teachers have changed, or are changing, from a traditional approach to teaching formal grammar rules to a more communicative approach to teaching how to use grammar meaningfully in context. Communicative approaches to presenting grammar usually include a focus on meaning and use as well as form. Grammar can be taught in many ways there is no best way that suits all grammar points (Gardener, 2008, pg.39). Students are introduced to simple present tense at school (K-6) through numerous curriculum topics English, Human Society and Its Environment (HSIE), Science and Technology. Students use specific text types to practice usage of simple present tense. Each text type uses different language and grammatical features. These features are outlined in Table 1.2. This table indicates primary use of simple present tense in Report writing. In addition, Parrot (2000, pg.190), identifies past narratives and commentaries as other instances in which the simple present tense is also used. Reports and narratives are focus texts (structure, grammar and context) in the English K-6 syllabus. Grammar is used as a tool to help students understand how sentences are structured so that they are meaningful, clear and syntactically accurate (BOS NSW, pg.9). Reports are also commonly used in the following Key Learning Areas (KLAs) HSIE Significant events and people, Cultural Diversity (BOS NSW, 2006) and in Science and Technology Living Things, Earth and Its Surroundings (BOS, 1993, pg.10). The HSIE and Science and Technology syllabus highlight activities that essentially require the use of language. Students use language to pose questions, clarify ideas and communicate understandings (BOS, 1993, pg.27). Describe activities you could use for simple present tense The way in which the verb tenses are introduced can make the structure of the English Language easier for the students to understand. Whereas pre-teen and early teen children learn a language by listening and repeating what they hear, without any need to think about grammar, this facility seems to fade as everyone gets older. The older a student is the more he or she will want to analyze the structure or learn using rules. Unfortunately many rules for the English language have exceptions sometimes many exceptions (Stocker DG, 2011). Activities in a b require more direct, explicit instruction through discussion, modeling and controlled activities. Whilst c requires more implicit instruction and allows students to apply knowledge of tense in meaningful ways, through less controlled activities. Activities are conducted independently, in pairs and as a whole class, using verbal, auditory, visual, written and kinesthetic activities. Activities are implemented across all KLAs in the NSW K-6 curriculum. Introducing simple present Introductory activities- Define simple present tense to students, the structure and forms which it can take (positive, negative, yes/no, questions -wh) and when it is used. Focus on frequency adverbs, spelling and pronunciation. This can be done through discussion, asking questions and modeling. Students are taught as a whole class but also independently asked to give answers. Introductory activities need to be introduced over a series of lessons and each concept is taught independently of the others e.g. positive and negatives not taught with plurals. In between each topic follow up activities presented in b and c can be implemented. Activities Simon Says, Guessing Games What animal am I ?, Verbal Show and Tell, Songs Wonderful Tonight (Eric Clapton) Practicing and consolidating in controlled circumstances Worksheets -unscrambling sentences, cloze passages, short answer questions, changing negatives to positives, changing singular to plural. Such worksheets can be found at http://www.eslprintables.com/printable.asp?id=248248. Writing Report writing using simple present tense, using their prior knowledge of simple present tense and report writing. Teacher discusses structure and language features with students as whole class. Students are given an outline and topic and are able to construct in pairs. Routines students write their daily routines. Directions students give directions to a designated location. GAP Activities Interactive whiteboard Teachers can access interactive whiteboard activities using DET Portal, through TALE. The preceding links provide suitable simple present activities that reinforce initial concepts taught. https://portalsrvs.det.nsw.edu.au/learningobjects/Content/L10347/object/content/index.html https://portalsrvs.det.nsw.edu.au/learningobjects/Content/L10346/object/content/index.html These activities consist of short stories, followed by supporting activities to enforce the concepts being discussed. Lessons can be implemented using a combination of individual or whole class approaches. Freer practice of the aspect of language Interactive computer games- The British Council have designed this language website for K-6 students. It includes interactive games, songs, videos and short stories to assist students in developing an awareness of simple present tense. Each of these activities is supplemented with worksheets and visual arts activities. Activities can be found at the following web address: http://learnenglishkids.britishcouncil.org/en/category/language-focus/grammar-present-simple This website allows students to work at their own pace, requires minimal teacher direction and gives students instant feedback, all whilst learning through an enjoyable medium. There are numerous educational websites, however each should be thoroughly assessed for appropriateness, quality and curriculum standards. Board Games- The preceding websites provide printable board games. http://www.eslhq.com/worksheets/preview_worksheet.php?worksheet_id=26329 http://www.ihbangkok.com/!new/resources/present-simple-board-game.pdf Each game is supported with teacher reference notes. Each game concentrates on a different form of simple present tense. Students work together in small groups of 2 or 3. The questions in the templates can be altered, so that students are answering meaningful questions and to avoid repetition. The aforementioned activities are a small sample of activities that could be used to teach simple present tense. Multiple activities can be sourced from the internet, textbook and colleagues then manipulated and altered to suit the needs of individual students. These activities allow for both informal and formal assessment to take place and allow the teacher to continually evaluate students progress.

Von Economo Neurons and Self-Awareness

Von Economo Neurons and Self-Awareness Joshua McCosker Von Economo neurons (VENs) are large bipolar neurons found in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), frontoinsular cortex (FI) and dorsolateral prefrontal area (DLPA) in the brains of humans, and to a lesser extent, the great apes, several cetaceans and elephants. It is believed that they arose independently within these species due to evolutionary pressure that required the rapid transmission and cognitive processing of social information in animals with large highly convoluted brains and complex social behaviours (Hakeem et al., 2009). Research has suggestedsuggests that the evolution of these neurons underlie the emergence of intuition, higher emotional cognitive functions and self-referential processes. This suggests an intriguing connection with the subjective conscious experience and self-conscious awareness (Critchley Seth, 2012). To investigate this connection between VENs and self-awareness it is necessary to examine the known behavioural functions of the ACC and FI, along w ith the evolution of these structures and the integration with this novel class of neuron. Furthermore, the higher social functions attributed to VENs and how these are related to awareness of consciousness self will be discussed in light of research that shows a correlation between the degeneration of VENs in several neuro-psychiatric disorders that leads to devastating deficits in conscious awareness and social skills (Butti, Santos, Uppal, Hof, 2013). The ACC and FI are found in the paralimbic cortex (also known as mesocortex) of the mammalian brain and represents a relatively ancient region that has recently gone through a period of evolutionary adaptive changes in humans and is directly connected to limbic structures while providing a transition to higher neocortical regions (Brà ¼ne et al., 2010; William W. Seeley et al., 2006). These paralimbic structures show increased connectivity with the hippocampus, amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex and septum; the septum is involved in social memory and the development of trust in humans (Allman, Tetreault, Hakeem, Park, 2011). It is hypothesised that this enhanced connectivity is mediated by VENs that project from the FI and ACC to these structures providing functional integration with of somatosensory input and higher cognitive emotional processes leading to the emergence of intuition, social and self-awareness and the ability to empathise (Allman, Tetreault, Hakeem, Manaye, et al., 201 1; Allman, Tetreault, Hakeem, Park, 2011). AIC as the input sensory region and ACC as the output control region (Craig, 2009; W. W. Seeley et al., 2007). The evolutionary expansion of the cerebral cortex gave rise to the neocortex in mammals leading to a volumetric increase in humans of several-hundred times over that of lower primates (Nimchinsky et al., 1999). However, the types of neurons found within the brain have remained relatively constant (Nimchinsky et al., 1999; William W. Seeley et al., 2006). In 1926 Constantin Von Economo first described the cortical distribution and morphology of a novel class of neuron as being spindle like in form and of unusual length (Butti et al., 2013).. Von Economo neurons are large bipolar projection neurons that are relatively recent on the evolutionary path (Allman, Watson, Tetreault, Hakeem, 2005). They have large axons that bidirectionally connect the ACC to the FI and in turn to other structures of the brain between the limbic cortex and neocortex; suggesting a role in the rapid transmission of sensory information between these structures. Although VENs have been found in the FI and ACC of species other than great apes and homonids the cells are not found in the concentrated clusters that have been described in higher primates (Bauernfeind et al., 2013). It is interesting to note that volumetric studies have shown that the evolutionary expansion in size of the FI in primates is disproportionately greater to overall brain expansion by 36% and the total volume of the FI is about 4 times larger in humans compared to that of the chimpanzee (Bauernfeind et al., 2013). Furthermore, it is known that the vast majority of VENs develop during the first 8 months of life (Allman et al., 2010) . and this coincides with the emergence of stranger anxiety, separation anxiety and increased verbal skills (Hoffnung et al., 2013). These studies support the suggestion that the FI and ACC are intricately involved in enhancing social behaviours through the utilization of subjective emotional states in applying empathy toward others. ReseachResearch hasis showning a relationship between complex social and emotional processes and the advanced cognitive abilities that underlie the ability of self-recognition (Hunter, 2010). The mirror self-recognition test is used to assess self-awareness in animals and was developed by Gordon G. Gallup (1970) during his work with chimpanzees and self-recognition. In humans the ability to recognise the ‘self’ in a mirror image develops between the ages of 18 and 24 months and this coincides with the development of other indicators of social and self-awareness such as the ability to empathise (Hunter, 2010). As previously mentioned there is a rapid development of VENs during the first year of life and this development continues to age 4 when VEN numbers align to those of adult (Allman et al., 2010). The hypothesised role of VENs in higher cognitive functions and self-conscious awareness is supported by research that has shown the involvement of VENs in the pathogenesis of a number of neuropsychiatric and behavioural conditions that are characterised by deficits in emotional and social functioning, the ability to empathise, impairment of affective language and alterations in conscious awareness (Kaufman et al., 2008). Stereological research suggests that these conditions may be due to the failure of VENs to develop normally or the degeneration of these cells within the ACC and FI (Allman et al., 2005; Butti et al., 2013). This is evident in frontotemporal dementia (FTD) where patients present with a severe reduction in social judgement, empathy and the ability to self-monitor leading to sociopathic behaviour (William W. Seeley et al., 2006). In a study conducted by William W. Seeley et al. (2006) it was shown that FTD is characterised by early injury to the ACC and FI involving e arly, severe and selective VENs loss of 74% compared to controls. Similarly, patients with early onset schizophrenia are characterised by a reduced volume of the ACC showing a significant reduction in the density of VENs (Allman et al., 2010; Brà ¼ne et al., 2010). People with schizophrenia show a broad range of impaired social skills characterised by severe disturbance of cognitive processes and self-conscious awareness giving rise to symptoms that include delusions, hallucinations, disorganised thought and speech, disorganised and catatonic behaviour, poverty of speech and lack of, or inappropriate, responses to socio-emotional cues (Nolen-hoeksema, 2007). Recent research has suggested a connection between these VENs containing areas, self-referential processes and the subjective conscious experience of awareness (Allman et al., 2005; Craig, 2009; William W. Seeley et al., 2006). The evolutionary motivation underlying these adaptations may well have been due to the rise of species living in complex social groups that required the rapid intuitive assessment of social interactions and the ability to differentiate between the needs of oneself and those of others and this may have led to the ability to empathise with the emotional state and needs of individuals within the social structure (Allman et al., 2010; Allman, Tetreault, Hakeem, Park, 2011; Hakeem et al., 2009). We shall consider a model of consciousness where the FI serves to integrate bottom-up interoceptive sensory information with top-down predictions and modulations from higher level prefrontal cortical areas and the ACC generating a state of awareness (Gu, Hof, Friston, Fan , 2013). It is hypothesised that VENs mediate a rapid bidirectional feedback between the integration of sensory information in the AIC and the adaptive behavioral responses mediated by the ACC (Allman et al., 2005). Interoception is the integration of somatosensory information leading to a sense of the physiological state of the body, giving rise to a cortical image or representation of self (Craig, 2002, 2009). In humans the interoceptive network is mediated via afferent spinothalamic neurons projecting to the ventromedial nucleus which is significantly larger in humans than other primates; non-primates are unable to experience body feelings in the same manner as humans do due to the lack of the specific afferent spinothalamocortical pathway involved in â€Å"direct interoceptive representation† (Craig, 2002). This homeostatic information is relayed to the anterior insular cortex where there is a re-representation of this interoceptive cortical image and the ACC is involved in the active modulation of the feeling represented by this image in response to cognitive assessment from the orbitofrontal cortex (Allman et al., 2005; Craig, 2002, 2009; William W. Seeley et al., 2006)(Craig, 2002, 2009; Seeley, 2006; Allman, 2005). It is also worth noting that this top-down cognitive assessment could involve conscious internal dialog and suggests the co-evolution of language and consciousness and that we are conscious in a human sense because we have language. Language is not only used for external communication but internally as parts of our thought processes defining our current mental state and by extension is a defining the broader and more complex brain state (Arbib, 2001). The above research shows that VENs are intricately involved in the convergence of somatosensory information via a highly evolved thalamacortical pathway to the paralimbic structure of the AIC in which emerges an integrated cortical image. Bidirectional signaling between between the AIC, ACC and multiple areas of the brain is mediate via VENs and is a contiual feedback loop that assesses and updates this cortical self-image utilising contextual cues derived from the environment and past experiences accessed from long term memory via hippocampal projections. The AIC cortical self-representation is modulated with emotional context and predictive behavioural responses. References Allman, J. M., Tetreault, N. A., Hakeem, A. Y., Manaye, K. F., Semendeferi, K., Erwin, J. M., . . . Hof, P. R. (2010). The von Economo neurons in frontoinsular and anterior cingulate cortex in great apes and humans. Brain Structure and Function, 214(5-6), 495-517. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0254-0 Allman, J. M., Tetreault, N. A., Hakeem, A. Y., Manaye, K. F., Semendeferi, K., Erwin, J. M., . . . Hof, P. R. (2011). The von Economo neurons in the frontoinsular and anterior cingulate cortex. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1225(1), 59-71. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06011.x Allman, J. M., Tetreault, N. A., Hakeem, A. Y., Park, S. (2011). The von economo neurons in apes and humans. American Journal of Human Biology, 23(1), 5-21. doi: 10.1002/ajhb.21136 Allman, J. M., Watson, K. K., Tetreault, N. A., Hakeem, A. Y. (2005). Intuition and autism: a possible role for Von Economo neurons. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(8), 367-373. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.06.008 Arbib, M. A. (2001). Co-Evolution of Human Consciousness and Language. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 929(1), 195-220. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05717.x Bauernfeind, A. L., de Sousa, A. A., Avasthi, T., Dobson, S. D., Raghanti, M. A., Lewandowski, A. H., . . . Sherwood, C. C. (2013). A volumetric comparison of the insular cortex and its subregions in primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 64(4), 263-279. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.12.003 Brà ¼ne, M., Schà ¶bel, A., Karau, R., Benali, A., Faustmann, P. M., Juckel, G., Petrasch-parwez, E. (2010). Von Economo neuron density in the anterior cingulate cortex is reduced in early onset schizophrenia. Acta Neuropathologica, 119(6), 771-778. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00401-010-0673-2 Butti, C., Santos, M., Uppal, N., Hof, P. R. (2013). Von Economo neurons: Clinical and evolutionary perspectives. Cortex, 49(1), 312-326. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2011.10.004 Craig, A. D. (2002). How do you feel? Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of the body. Nat Rev Neurosci, 3(8), 655-666. Craig, A. D. (2009). How do you feel now? The anterior insula and human awareness. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 10(1), 59-70. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2555 Critchley, H., Seth, A. (2012). Will Studies of Macaque Insula Reveal the Neural Mechanisms of Self-Awareness? Neuron, 74(3), 423-426. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.04.012 Gordon G. Gallup, Jr. (1970). Chimpanzees: Self-Recognition. Science, 167(3914), 86-87. doi: 10.2307/1728199 Gu, X., Hof, P. R., Friston, K. J., Fan, J. (2013). Anterior insular cortex and emotional awareness. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 521(15), 3371-3388. doi: 10.1002/cne.23368 Hakeem, A. Y., Sherwood, C. C., Bonar, C. J., Butti, C., Hof, P. R., Allman, J. M. (2009). Von Economo Neurons in the Elephant Brain. The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology, 292(2), 242-248. doi: 10.1002/ar.20829 Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R. J., Seifert, K. L., Smith, R. B., Hine, A., Ward, L., PauseÃÅ' , C. (2013). Lifespan development : a chronological approach (Second Australasian Edition ed.): Milton, Qld. John Wiley and Sons Australia. Hunter, P. (2010). The basis of morality. EMBO Reports, 11(3), 166-169. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/embor.2010.19 Kaufman, J., Paul, L., Manaye, K., Granstedt, A., Hof, P., Hakeem, A., Allman, J. (2008). Selective reduction of Von Economo neuron number in agenesis of the corpus callosum. Acta Neuropathologica, 116(5), 479-489. doi: 10.1007/s00401-008-0434-7 Nimchinsky, E. A., Gilissen, E., Allman, J. M., Perl, D. P., Erwin, J. M., Hof, P. R. (1999). A neuronal morphologic type unique to humans and great apes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 96(9), 5268-5273. Nolen-hoeksema, S. (2007). Abnormal psychology (E. Barrosse Ed.  ¤4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Seeley, W. W., Carlin, D. A., Allman, J. M., Macedo, M. N., Bush, C., Miller, B. L., DeArmond, S. J. (2006). Early frontotemporal dementia targets neurons unique to apes and humans. Ann Neurol, 60(6), 660-667. doi: 10.1002/ana.21055 Seeley, W. W., Menon, V., Schatzberg, A. F., Keller, J., Glover, G. H., Kenna, H., . . . Greicius, M. D. (2007). Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. J Neurosci, 27(9), 2349-2356. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5587-06.2007

Essay --

While living in the Bay Area, I have a valuable opportunity to experience many interesting food cultures. Doing my report on cultural traditions, I am inspired to enrich my knowledge in the culture that I have little knowledge of. Through the interview presentations, personal experiences shared by students, and several suggestions of indicative foods by the instructor, I have gained interests in different food habits and food symbolisms. After doing small research on each topic to decide what I am really interested in, I chose to learn more about the Seder plate in Passover tradition. The meanings of the celebration as well as the symbolic foods intertwine with the Jewish history of more than 210 years of slavery in Egypt. Though I have learnt about the cruelty of slavery, I have never known about any celebrated festival to commemorate on the journey to freedom from bondage. I am curious in understanding how symbolic foods that are emphasized in this festival represent the experienc es that the Israelites faced and their passage to freedom. Passover (also known as Pesach in Hebrew) is one of the most sacred festival in the Jewish calendar and the longest continuing ritual in the human history. Since 1300 B.C, Jews celebrate this tradition to commemorate the national freedom of the Children of Israel and recalls stories behind the Israelites' departure from the land of Egypt. Spring time signifies the season of Passover, which begins at the sunset marking the fifteenth day of Nisan, the first month in Jewish calendar. In modern calendar, that is between April and May. The story of Passover is written in the Book of Exodus, the second book of Hebrew Bible. Over 3000 years ago, Pharoah, the King of Egypt, enslaved Jews and tortur... ...e tradition. Hopefully, the younger generations will continue to celebrate the sacred celebration to maintain their heritage in the future. Besides the historical meaning behind this tradition, the Seder plate in Passover celebration not only teaches the younger generation to recall the past painful experiences from slavery, but also emphasizes on the positive sides of their successful journey and their joyful moments. Each of the symbolic foods of the Passover Seder Plate has an interesting meaning, and together, they created complex layered meaning of the tradition. Family and friends come together to reflect upon history, sympathize the tragedies, and celebrate the triumphs of their ancestors. It is extraordinary that all Jews around the world strongly symbolize their ancestors’ experiences and spread it as the foundation of national identity.

Morals and Ethics in the Movie Wall Street Essay -- Film Movie Wall St

Morals and Ethics in the Movie Wall Street The movie 'Wall Street' is a representation of poor morals and dissapointing business ethics in the popular world of business. This movie shows the negative effects that bad business morals can have on society. The two main characters are Bud Fox played by Charlie Sheen and Gordon Gekko played by Michael Douglas. Bud Fox is a young stockbroker who comes from an honest working-class family but on the other hand, Gordon Gekko is a millionaire who Bud admires and wants to be associated with. Greed seems to be a huge theme of this movie. This movie portrays the unethical society we live in. It shows how money oriented society has become and that people will do almost anything to get ahead. Competitiveness has become such a widespread game all over the country, especially in big cities. At the start of Wall Street, Bud Fox is young and insecure about the business world. Bud is a broker seeking new clients and offering second-hand advice regarding the buying and selling of stock. Bud was faced with a choice that would change his life. He was so sure he wanted to be involved with Gordon Gekko that he was willing to do whatever it took to be a part of his immoral scheme. It only took about five minutes for Bud to agree to give insider information about stocks to Gekko in order to become more lucrative and manipulative at the same time. Bud wants to sell him stocks, and hopefully one day be like he is. Bud is obviously desperate to d...

Essay on the Transformation of Hester in Scarlet Letter -- Scarlet Let

The Transformation of Hester Prynne in The Scarlet Letter Hester Prynne committed a crime so severe that it changed her life into coils of torment and defeat. In The Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Hester is publicly recognized as an adulteress and expelled from society. Alongside the theme of isolation, the scarlet letter, or symbol of sin, is meant to shame Hester but instead transforms her from a woman of ordinary living into a stronger person. The purpose of the scarlet letter is not fulfilled according to the author, Nathaniel Hawthorne. It was put upon Hester’s bosom to claim her unholiness but instead the "punishment" served as a way for Hester to grow stronger. The townspeople were the first to see first introduction of Hester. She was looked down on since the branding of the letter â€Å"A† upon her bosom. She was a "figure of perfect elegance" compared to the Puritan women of "brief beauty" (Hawthorne pg.: 55, 57). Right from the start, Hester appears to be different from those around her, suggesting a rebellious attitude to the traditions and customs of the time where church and state were still considered to be the central government at the time. She was different from others due to her nature of her being. Hester wasn’t like all other women. If another woman were to be branded an adulteress, that woman would have probably try to keep her sin away from the townspeople and forever keep their peace. Hester on the other hand, had the bravery and boldness in her that did not frighten her to show off what she did wrong. She may have had the intention that... ...tunate. The "human tenderness" Hester exerts shows how she did not care what the Puritans thought and acted. Her sin is also an example of her independence; Hester acted on her feelings and didn’t allow the Puritan’s views to interfere with her emotions. Hester has changed throughout The Scarlet Letter. She was pushed into a world of isolation because she did not fear acting on her passion. Hester transforms from a free-thinking woman to a strong, "ABLE" woman. The suffering Hester endured strengthened her and turned her into a person who helped another in need. The meaning of the scarlet letter shifts as Hester’s ability to endure the worst as plight increases. Essay on the Transformation of Hester in Scarlet Letter -- Scarlet Let The Transformation of Hester Prynne in The Scarlet Letter Hester Prynne committed a crime so severe that it changed her life into coils of torment and defeat. In The Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Hester is publicly recognized as an adulteress and expelled from society. Alongside the theme of isolation, the scarlet letter, or symbol of sin, is meant to shame Hester but instead transforms her from a woman of ordinary living into a stronger person. The purpose of the scarlet letter is not fulfilled according to the author, Nathaniel Hawthorne. It was put upon Hester’s bosom to claim her unholiness but instead the "punishment" served as a way for Hester to grow stronger. The townspeople were the first to see first introduction of Hester. She was looked down on since the branding of the letter â€Å"A† upon her bosom. She was a "figure of perfect elegance" compared to the Puritan women of "brief beauty" (Hawthorne pg.: 55, 57). Right from the start, Hester appears to be different from those around her, suggesting a rebellious attitude to the traditions and customs of the time where church and state were still considered to be the central government at the time. She was different from others due to her nature of her being. Hester wasn’t like all other women. If another woman were to be branded an adulteress, that woman would have probably try to keep her sin away from the townspeople and forever keep their peace. Hester on the other hand, had the bravery and boldness in her that did not frighten her to show off what she did wrong. She may have had the intention that... ...tunate. The "human tenderness" Hester exerts shows how she did not care what the Puritans thought and acted. Her sin is also an example of her independence; Hester acted on her feelings and didn’t allow the Puritan’s views to interfere with her emotions. Hester has changed throughout The Scarlet Letter. She was pushed into a world of isolation because she did not fear acting on her passion. Hester transforms from a free-thinking woman to a strong, "ABLE" woman. The suffering Hester endured strengthened her and turned her into a person who helped another in need. The meaning of the scarlet letter shifts as Hester’s ability to endure the worst as plight increases.

Emile Durkheim’s Theory of Crime and Crime Causation Essay

Abstract The concept of â€Å"crime† has over the ages been subject to various definitions as the society tries to address it. Criminology is thus the study of crime and crime causation. It concerns itself with understanding the deep essence of crime as an act or omission, and all the reasons behind its occurrence. In this pursuit, criminology draws on various other fields such as sociology, biology, psychology, etc. This field of study is often argued to be a subdivision of sociology which the larger field since its main focus is grounded in social realities. Hence, during the twentieth century, the sociological approach to crime was the most influential, thus scholars such Emile DURKHEIM bought about considerable impact to the common perception of crime. He was a French sociologist who, viewing the whole society as a reality, perceived crime as a mere element of the society; a completely natural phenomenon and which serves certain significant functions. This work is therefore intended to, throughout a concise discussion, explicate and analyze the theory of crime and its causation as perceived by Emile Durkheim, mainly considering its natural and functional characteristics. †Emile DURKHEIM (1858-1971) viewed inequality as a natural and inevitable human condition that is not associated with social maladies such as crime unless there is also a breakdown of social norms or rules† Explain and Assess Durkheim’s theory on crime and crime causation. Introduction Criminology is understood to be the study of crime and crime causation as social phenomena; it thus concerns itself with the study of the causes of crime and the treatment of the offenders.1 In this pursuit, criminology, as a subdivision of sociology2, draws on many fields inter alia psychology, biology, anthropology, etc. In the twentieth century, the sociological approach to criminology became the most influential approach; this is basically the study of social behavior, systems, and structures. 3 Emile DURKHEIM, a French sociologist, is amongst the scholars who exerted great influence on criminology during that period. He, unlike other scholars, both in and outside the field of sociology, perceived criminal behaviors as normal part of all societies. No society, he argued, can ever have complete uniformity of moral consciousness4, and thus, there has always been some deviant characters from the commonly accepted moral values. This write-up is therefore intended to briefly explicate and analyze the theory on crime and its causation as observed by E. Durkheim. Scholars in almost all the fields (related to criminology in particular) before and after Durkheim have endeavored to find the cause for crimes. In this regard, they have attempted to find the causation of criminal behavior in different factors, including external factors such as in natural and supernatural forces,5 climate, economic conditions, density of population or  certain ecological areas.6 In contrast to all the above factors, Durkheim maintained that the only explanation in relation to crime causation is to be found in essentially looking into ‘the very nature of the society’.7 In this respect, he was convinced that the individual is rather ‘a product’ than an ‘author’ of the society; he is, otherwise, a small image of the world in which he lives, hence, the causation of his behaviors, be they criminal or not, could be found only by understanding the society in which he lives. For E. Durkheim, crime is therefore immanent in society an d results from social interaction. Simply put, criminality proceeds from nothing but the very nature of humanity itself and, far from being transcendent, it is immanent.8 In his writings, Durkheim emphasizes on the immanence of crime; its causation as solely based upon the material world. Rejecting all definitions of crimes, as per the commonsense of any society, as acts that are harmful to society, Durkheim observes that all crimes, as a common characteristic, consist in acts universally disapproved of by members of each society; they shock sentiments, which, for a given society, are found in all healthy consciences. 9 Put simply, a crime is a deviant behavior only because it goes against social norms. From this perspective, arguably, the French sociologist seems to In reference to the pre-classical school of criminology whereby crime causation was understood as based upon supernatural forces, i.e. forces beyond the natural or human capacities. Adopt the legal definition of crime, as any act that the law makes punishable.10 However, unlike the proponents of that legal definition, he hold the view that the said act punishable by the law serves a significant social function which is to support and reassure the same social norms or  laws of a society. From the above elements, one would deduce that according to this theory, a crime is, arguably, a paradoxical phenomenon. Durkheim, the theorist, suggests that a crime is normally caused by or results from social interactions, and it is not deviant per se unless so declared by the laws or social norms. This is arguably Durkheim’s eminence in the field of criminology which rests upon his broad approach to anti-social behavior.11 However, it will be worth remembering that Durkheim, after identifying the essence of crime and causation, he went further to attribute to this phenomenon a certain function. This is what makes him different from all the scholars in the field of criminology. He observed that, not only is crime something normal in societies, it also plays some significant function. The Normality and Functionality of Crime Unlike other social scientists before and after him, Durkheim maintains that criminality is Normal factor rather than a Pathological one.12 Especially in current societies, this might seem really strange. According to Durkheim, crime is normal because a society the society cannot get rid of it; it is utterly impossible for a society to exempt from criminality. He argues that it is a phenomenon, not due to any imperfection of human nature or society, but from the  normal course of affairs in that given society. Hence, it is the fundamental conditions of the social organization that logically imply it. Crime is hence all a part of the totality of a society. The criminal behavior is a behavior completely normal like any other and thus its complete eradication is quite impossible. Durkheim articulates; â€Å"A society exempt  from it (crime) would necessitate a standardization of the moral concepts of all individuals which is neither possible nor desirable.†14 From this contention, one would concur with Durkheim on the fact that a society cannot get ride with or completely eradicate criminality. The criminal justice system is well-set, not to completely eradicate criminality, but to try as much as they can to reduce its level. Furthermore, Durkheim was of the view that crime serves a non-negligible role within the society. The social function he attributes to crime is inextricably linked with the society’s legal system, in that it supports or reassures the social norms of the society by the fact that it is considered as going against the said norms.15 One of the main justifications for his belief is that the fact that crime is found in all society simply suggests that it must be performing some necessary functions; otherwise it would have degrading over the ages and by the end of the day, abolished in an advanced society. 16 One of the most effective and necessary functions, he argued, crime plays is ‘social change’.17 Crime could be considered as one of the effective sources of change in a society. This could be exemplified by, in line with his definition of crime, the events that happened in the United States with the Anti-miscegenation Laws that promoted racial segregation.18 These laws began being violated as the American society progressed, it reached a point where, in violation those laws (social norms), many people started having inter-racial relationships. To some extent, the violation of those social norms, which could be regarded as crime, brought about social change in the US. Durkheim further argues that without crime, there could be no evolution in law.19 For instance, every individual’s right to express himself should be guaranteed for any society to progress. Hence, the opportunity for a genius or an artist to carry out his work affords the criminal his originality at a lower level.20 Thus, there has to be a certain evolution of the laws in order to face such situation from time to time. He further drew some analogy to the trial of Socrates; â€Å"According to the Athenian Law, Socrates was a criminal, and his condemnation was more than just. However, his crime, namely, the independence of his thought, rendered a service both to his country and the humanity.†21 In terms of evolution of the laws, this trial that occurred in the ancient ages is significant. From the above contentions, one would thus say, that crime should no longer be conceived as an evil that cannot be repressed. It should be considered, instead, as a normal phenomenon which can be faced for purposes of reducing its rate in the society. Conclusion Crime, according to Durkheim, is a normal phenomenon in the society that at the same time serves certain social functions. This paper emphasized on the fact that, unlike other scholars in the field of criminology, Durkheim perceived crime in, arguably, a kind of paradoxical manner in the sense that he started by defining crime as being caused by social interactions. For him, it is an act caused by social interaction, which (act) is not a crime per se, but it one becomes after being so declared by the social norms. He however recognized the negative part of crime, anyway, by conceding that crime is an act that shocks sentiments, which, for a given society, are found in all healthy consciences. He finally suggests that, without condoning crime or presenting apology for it, crime must no longer be conceived as an evil that the society could be exempted from, but rather a reality that exists as part of the society to members of the society can react through punishment.22 Therefore, in stating that crime could be perceived as merely a normal and natural element, he conceived the whole society as reality which is meant to move and evolve. BIBLIOGRAPHY Black’s Law Dictionary; (8th Ed. 2004). West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, edition 2. S.v. â€Å"Criminology.† Retrieved July 27 2014 from http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Criminology Durkheim, E. The Rules of Sociological Method, Edited by G. E. Gatlin, 1938. http://kpulawandsociety.wordpress.com/2012/10/18/durkheim-crime-serves-asocial-function/; Retrieved on July 27, 2014. Hamlin, J. The Normality of Crime. Durkheim and Erikson, Department of Sociology and Anthropology. UMD (2009). Walter A. Lunden; Pioneers in Criminology XVI–Emile Durkheim (1858-1917); Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. Vol. 49|Issue 1, Article II (1958). Prins, A., Criminalite et Repression, Bruxelles, 1886. http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/sociology/introduction-to-deviance/reviseit/deviance-durkheims-contribution. Retrieved on July 27, 2014.